Macchiaioli
The Macchiaioli were a group of Italian painters active in Tuscany in the second half of the nineteenth century. The macchiaioli formed a pictorial movement that developed in the Italian city of Florence in the second half of the 19th century. The term was coined in 1862 by an anonymous columnist for the Gazzeta del Popolo newspaper, who with that contemptuous expression defined the group of painters that around 1855 had originated an anti-academic renewal of Italian painting. These young artists met at the Caffè Michelangiolo, where the new ideas with which they wanted to contribute to the painting of their time were alive.
The macchiaioli strayed from antiquated conventions taught by the Italian art academies, and did much of their painting outdoors in order to capture natural light, shade, and colour.
The movement aimed to renew the national pictorial culture. The macchiaioli were opposed to romanticism and academicism, and affirmed that the image of reality is a contrast of spots of colors and chiaroscuro. This movement is the only one that in the artistic panorama of its time really deserves the name of school, both for the community of interests that linked all the components of the group, from different regions of Italy, and for the high quality of the results. obtained artistic.
The main exponents of the movement were: Giuseppe Abbati, Vito D’Ancona, Cristiano Banti, Giovanni Boldini, Odoardo Borrani, Vincenzo Cabianca, Adriano Cecioni, Nino Costa, Giovanni Fattori, Silvestro Lega, Antonio Puccinelli, Raffaello Sernesi, Telemaco Signorini, Serafino De Tivoli and Federico Zandomeneghi, as well as art critic Diego Martelli, main theoretician of the group. In addition to the Caffè Michelangiolo, the macchiaioli’s usual meeting places were Silvestro Lega’s workshop in Piagentina – a town near Florence – and Diego Martelli’s villa in Castiglioncello.
Although they did not enjoy the support of the critics at the time, their movement is considered today the most relevant in 19th century Italy.
The name of the group comes from the Italian macchia (stain), so macchiaioli means “manchistas” or “stainers” (macchiaioli is plural, the singular is macchiaiolo). It is a polysemic term, which can also mean “sketch” in Italian, and in the works of these artists the stain is both the smear of paint and the previous process of making the painting. It is also a type of vegetation (maquia), the typical Mediterranean scrub that arises in barren terrain. Hence comes a broader and more metaphorical meaning, associating it with thieves and lawless people, And that would imply in these artists their rebellion against the academic tradition of painting of their time. Finally, in Florence and its surroundings, extravagant characters were called macchia (plural macchie). As for the term macchiaiolo it also has other meanings, all of them from Tuscany: a type of wild boar hound and a bovine breed from the Tuscan marshes (macchiaiola). 4
The name was disparagingly awarded to these artists by an editor of the Gazzeta del Popolo newspaper in 1862, on the occasion of the First Italian National Exposition. It was Telemaco Signorini who took it on with a new positive outlook and was accepted by the group as a collective designation. For this group, even, the “stain” was a weapon, a symbol, it was their flag in the art world. In the words of Diego Martelli (Gazzetino della Arti del Disegno):
We had to fight and to hurt, and we needed a weapon and a flag, and the stain was found in opposition to the form and we affirmed that the form did not exist and that, as well as light, everything results from color. and chiaroscuro, this is how to obtain tones, the effects of the true.
Origin
The macchiaioli emerged in Florence in 1855 and developed its activities as a group until about 1870, although some artists continued their manchista production until about 1880. The group vertebró around the Caffè Michelangiolo, located on the Via Larga (now Via Cavour) of Florence, near Piazza del Duomo. Both nationalist revolutionary politicians – led by Giuseppe Dolfi -, writers and painters, met here as well as the art critic Diego Martelli, who would be the main theorist of the group, founder in 1873 of the magazine Giornale Artistico. According to Cecioni, “the premises consisted of two rooms, one of which was decorated with frescoes by painters who frequented the premises; in her they met to discuss, formal meetings were not then ». Discussions were both political and art theory, and both Italian and French art were debated. Martelli recalled:
From 1848, on Via Larga, in a café named after Michelangelo, almost all the artists of the city met. Not without sighing I remember those times and those evenings, and do not regret that I tell you about it, since in the history of that coffee the whole history of our Tuscan art is synthesized and much of that of the Italian is reflected.
The Caffè Michelangiolo included, in addition to numerous Italian artists, politicians, and writers, a wide variety of characters from various European countries, including Gustave Moreau, Edgar Degas, Édouard Manet, Marcellin Desboutin, Georges Lafenestre, James Tissot and John Ruskin.
Although the group was formed in Florence, many of its members came from other regions of Italy: Abbati was Neapolitan, D’Ancona pesarense, Boldini Ferrarese, Banti and Borrani pisanos, Cabianca veronés, Costa Roman, Fattori and Tivoli Livornese and Zandomeneghi Venetian; the only Florentines by birth were Cecioni, Martelli, Sernesi and Signorini.
At its genesis was the rejection of academic painting and the artistic panorama of Italy of its time, against which they defended a new technique based on color spots, which according to them created spontaneous and immediate “impressions” of reality visual. That is why many historians describe them as “proto-impressionists”, although their style emphasizes more the solidity of the forms against the light effects of the predecessors of Impressionism, while their work has a more literary content. Against the ideals of beauty of academicism, the macchiaioli contrast il vero, “the true”.
The artistic moment in which the group emerged was marked by the transition between romanticism and realism, as well as the rejection of academic painting: according to Signorini, “the macchia initially served to highlight especially the chiaroscuro effect of painting, to prevail over linear and academic art ».
On the other hand, in the political sphere, the group fully identified with the Risorgimento and the rise of Italian nationalism, which was reflected in the process of unification of Italy carried out between 1848 and 1870. Its political referent was Giuseppe Mazzini, From which they adopted their liberal and nationalist ideology, based on utopian socialism and positivism, with a certain tendency towards a somewhat religious romanticism. Several of its members, such as Abbati, Borrani, Cecioni, Costa, Fattori, Lega, Signorini and Tivoli, fought in the unification wars,, In which Abbati lost an eye in the battle of Santa Maria Capua Vetere (1860) and Sernesi died fighting in the Third Italian War of Independence (1866). Their political tendency was, on the other hand, clearly democratic, for which reason they defended in their work the shaping of the real, of the social theme, of daily life and the rural environment. The Macchiaioli were always rebels and marginalized and, in fact, most died in poverty.
The first concrete formulations in search of an own style took place in 1855, after the trips made by some members of the group to London and Paris. In particular, Serafino de Tivoli brought news of the Barbizon school, note 6, from the Paris Universal Exposition that year, a group of realistic artists dedicated especially to the landscape, which influenced the group powerfully, especially Camille Corot, Constant Troyon, Rosa Bonheur and Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps[](The latter’s work was known in Florence thanks to Anatoli Demidoff’s collection at Villa San Donato in Florence). These contacts with European naturalism of the time were enriched by the incorporation into the group in 1859 from Rome Nino Costa, a great admirer of landscaping that occurred on the continent since 1830.
From Paris they also brought news of the work of various photographers with a naturalistic tendency, such as Gustave Le Gray, with which a great fondness for photography began on the part of these artists. According to Signorini, the Manchista revolution was “aided by photography, it is an invention that does not disgrace our century and that it is not guilty if anyone uses it as if it were art”. Signorini himself, as well as Cabianca and Cristiano Banti, often traveled to France in those years, where they came into contact not only with the Barbizon painters, but with photographers such as Le Gray, Nadar and Étienne Carjat, who powerfully influenced his work. According toAntoine Claudet, the work of these photographers “was for the artist a dictionary that guides him in the translation of the language of nature, an album of notes in which he always finds brand new ideas and new inspirations”.
Another initial influence of the group was the Posillipo school, a group of Neapolitan landscape painters of the 1820s, among whom Giacinto Gigante, Filippo Palizzi and Domenico Morelli stood out. Likewise, another source of inspiration, especially for the realism of his compositions, were the Venetian Vedutes of the 18th century. All this led the group especially towards landscaping, in such a way that Signorini came to affirm: “landscape painting is modern art, it is the characteristic manifestation of our century”. However, in addition to landscaping, another important influence would be historical painting, especially the work of Francesco Hayez, in which they find the national roots that inspired them in the moment of nationalist effervescence they were experiencing.
Referents from various members of the group were also: Giuseppe Bezzuoli, professor of painting at the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence, a painter sensitive to chromaticism who, therefore, moved away from the strict academic canons, more focused on drawing —Fattori and Lega were his students; and Luigi Mussini, a purist painter who had a private academy – where Silvestro Lega was trained – where he taught the work of the early Quattrocento masters, whose work was admired by the Macchiaioli – similarly to the English Pre-Raphaelites and the German Nazarenes. The work of the primitive Tuscan Renaissance – especially Fra Angelico, Paolo Uccello and Piero della Francesca – powerfully caught the attention of the Macchiaioli, who considered them to be ancestors. According to Mario Tinti, ” Macchiaioli Fourcentivism was an exquisitely intuitive and empirical fact, free from the prejudice that aesthetic seductions and theoretical codifications carry.”
Macchiaioli have often been compared to French Impressionists, and have sometimes even been dubbed “Italian Impressionists,” but the two groups have numerous stylistic, sociological, and cultural differences. The only points in common between both groups are the desire for modernity, the interest in photography, the admiration for Japanese woodcuts and, technically, the taste for the preparation of previous sketches and work in the open air. All this also taking into account that the macchiaiolithey are 10 years older than the French impressionists.
Among their differences, it is also worth highlighting the political commitment of the Italians to the indifference of the French, some of whom went into exile to avoid fighting in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871; the taste for the rural and lower class environments of the Italians compared to the urban and more gentrified of the French; and the choice of the most truthful and worldly motives of the manchistas against the more jovial and carefree of Impressionism. Furthermore, in general, the work of the Manchistas is more elaborate and intellectual than that of the Impressionists, more prone to a spontaneous grasp of reality, and the composition of the painting is more balanced in Italians than in French. Still, there were numerous contacts and mutual admiration between the two schools and several artists macchiaioli visited Paris, Florence also visited some impressionists, especially Edgar Degas, who was several times in the Caffè Michelangiolo between 1856 and 1859.
Development
The first works that could be considered purely Manchist were made by Telemaco Signorini during a trip to Venice and La Spezia in 1858: in La merzia de la Spezia it already clearly reflects the contrasts of light and shadow typical of chiaroscuro macchiaioli and elaborates the forms by means of contrasts of chromatic intensity, hardly giving relevance to detail or modeling. According to Alessandro Marabottini (I Macchiaioli. Origine e affermazione della Macchia 1856-1870, 2000), “the drawing fades, replaced by the immediate touch of the brush, brimming with color.”
In 1859, the year of the fall of Grand Duke Leopold II of Tuscany, the Provisional Government of Florence, led by Bettino Ricasoli, organized an artistic competition focused on the theme of the war of unification, which was attended by several artists of the group. It was won by Giovanni Fattori with the painting The Italian Camp after the Battle of Magenta. This work marks the transition from Signorini’s chiaroscuro stain to the group’s own tonal stain, characterized by juxtaposed color tones, without violent contrasts, a softer relationship between light and color, and an atmospheric perspective achieved by successive planes.
Between 1860 and 1865 the best exponents of macchiaioli landscaping were produced thanks to the representation of military scenes, generally maneuvers of soldiers and horsemen in the field. In these compositions, carried out outdoors, they studied in depth the effects of chiaroscuro and color relationships, for the sake of a more synthetic representation of the relief. From these studies the macchia was born, with which they articulated the linear structure and defined the planes with precision. As Diego Martelli expressed it:
The apparent volume of the objects represented on a canvas is obtained simply by indicating the relationship between the gaps and the shadows, and it is not possible to represent this relationship in its fair value except with the “spots” or brushstrokes that collect it exactly.
It should be noted that the chiaroscuro used by this group is not the traditional one used in painting since yesteryear, but a combination of colors-shadow and colors-light, which created lighting and atmospheric effects of great richness and suggestion. Through the stain, the silhouette is revalued in front of the detail and the light contrasts are emphasized, thus claiming the clear Mediterranean light of its land.
This technique gave the work of the macchiaioli the appearance of a colored marquetry, with very cut shapes thanks to the chiaroscuro. They used to work on wooden supports, generally rectangular in shape and small in format — sometimes even the remains of packaging or cigar box lids — reminiscent of the Florentine predellates of Trecento and Quattrocento. The technique used is oil, applied directly to the support, without primer, taking advantage of the wood grain.
As in Impressionism, the Macchiaioli sought with their Manchist technique an objective representation of the optical phenomena of light, although in practice their lighting effects are reminiscent of those of romantic landscaping, especially that of the Swiss school (Barthélemy Menn, François Bocion, Frank Buchser, Ernst Stückelberg). At the same time, the thematic content of his works has a literary quality that is intrinsically Italian.
The first phase of the macchiaioli’s work was called by Martelli ” Castiglioncello school “, since it was in this locality, where Martelli had a farm, where the first members of the group met: Abbati, Borrani, Fattori and Signorini. Above all, they cultivated the landscaping, capturing in their canvases the barren and rocky landscapes of the Maremma, a Tuscan coastal region. They generally produced small-format works, on panel, with a summary technique of geometric and chiaroscuro surfaces in soft light tones, with flat images and colors applied with broad brushstrokes.
Almost simultaneously, Silvestro Lega created another production center in his workshop in Piagentina, a town east of Florence, which was frequented mainly by Abbati, Borrani, Sernesi and Signorini. This group created a more contemplative, more intimate and expressive variant of Manchista painting, focused on outdoor studies and an interest in light effects. Signorini reflected on this in his Scritti d’arte:
How full of passion, enthusiasm, and feverish activity were those beautiful days spent in that beautiful countryside and in that small, studious cenacle of friends united by the same artistic ideal!
In addition to these two places, the macchiaioli were also inspired by landscapes of various Italian towns: in 1858, Cabianca and Signorini traveled to La Spezia, where they painted from life and began Manchism; in 1860 there was a second stay of Banti, Cabianca and Signorini in La Spezia; in 1861, Banti, Borrani, Signorini and Stanislas Pointeau spent a stay at Montelupo Fiorentino, and Borrani and Sernesi spent two months at San Marcello Pistoiese.
Although the main genre the macchiaioli cultivated was landscape, they also developed portraiture, history painting, and genre scenes. The history painting was revalued thanks to the National Exhibition of Florence in 1861, in which several members of the group participated. In this genre, the influences that the Manchistas received came mainly from French artists such as Eugène Delacroix, Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier, Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps, William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Paul Delaroche and Auguste Gendron, as well as the Neapolitan Domenico Morelli.
As for the portrait, its references were the Tuscan purists of income from the province, as well as the possibilities offered in this field by photography, while an immediate reference would be Amos Cassioli, a disciple of Luigi Mussini who assimilated purist formalism with compositional freedom of French contemporary artists. They were portraits that sought the naturalness of the pose against the formal rigidity of the traditional portrait, the expression of everyday life in the portrait’s attitude, in cases such as The Artist’s Nephew (1865), by Fattori, or Portrait of a Young Man(1865-1866), by Borrani, as well as the vivacious portraits that Boldini showed at the Fine Arts Exhibition of the Società d’Incoraggiamento in 1867, of which Signorini commented that “the novelty of the genre confuses classifiers, who do not they succeed in assigning him a place in the artistic categories ».
Lastly, the genre scenes focused on rural settings, on scenes of peasants in their daily chores, scenes far from the harshness of French realism but not falling into bucolic complacency, but rather showing the simplicity of rural life in its strict literalness, reflecting either happy or anecdotal moments, or the harshness of working in the fields, or simply the rustic customs of the Tuscan countryside.
From 1865 the macchiaioli began to have stylistic divergences and gradually separated. A symbolic event of the end of the group was the closure of the Caffè Michelangiolo in 1866. The following year, in 1867, Telemaco Signorini published a magazine entitled Gazzettino delle Arti del Disegno, which collected much of the group’s theoretical discourse and which, in To a certain extent, it replaced coffee as a means of critical debate, but it only had forty issues, all published that same year. However, already then Signorini traced back to 1865 the dissolution of the group: «they divided among themselves and precipitated the end of their Society, when they found themselves discordant and some wanted and others rejected the collective exhibition of 1865. Fatally for young art, for coffee artists and for the progressive element, it did not prevail, and the collective exhibition of that year was no longer held ». The group was also marked by the deaths of Sernesi in 1866 in the Third War of Independence and of Abbati in 1868 after being bitten by a dog.
Group members began to evolve to other styles. The most faithful to the movement were Fattori and Lega, who continued their Manchista production in the 1870s and even in the 1880s. Some artists settled in Paris, such as Zandomeneghi and Boldini, where they came closer to Impressionism. However, over the years Manchism degenerated into diversification and a certain exaggerated virtuosity, as can be seen in the work of artists who tried to imitate the initial style of the Macchiaioli, such as Giacomo Favretto or Giuseppe De Nittis.
Between 1870 and 1895 Diego Martelli continued giving lectures on macchiaioli, in which he established the theoretical basis of the movement, encompassing it in modern European artistic trends. On the other hand, in 1873 Cecioni and Signorini published the magazine Il Giornale Artistico for a time.
Between 1880 and 1920, the current gave rise to that of the post-macchiaioli, a series of painters who used various pictorial parameters developed by the Manchistas, including: Giovanni Bartolena, Leonetto Cappiello, Ulvi Liegi, Guglielmo Micheli, Alfredo Müller, Plinio Nomellini and Mario Puccini. Many of them were students of the macchiaioli and had the city of Livorno as the main center of their activities.
Group members
Giuseppe Abbati (1836-1868)
Neapolitan by birth, he lived in Venice since he was a child, where he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts and where he met Signorini and D’Ancona. In 1860 he lost an eye in the battle of Santa Maria Capua Vetere. He then settled in Florence, where he frequented the Caffè Michelangiolo. In 1861 he won an award at the National Exhibition, which he rejected in protest at the composition of the jury. In 1861 he settled in Castiglioncello and, the following year, in Piagentina. Between 1863 and 1866 he exhibited at the Promotrici in Turin, Venice and Florence. In the 1866 campaign he was taken prisoner and was imprisoned in Croatia for several months. Upon his return he settled alone in Castelnuovo della Misericordia, where he reached his artistic maturity. He died from a dog bite.
Vito D’Ancona (1825-1884)
Born in Pesaro, he settled in Florence in 1844, where he studied at the School of Fine Arts. He was one of the first socialists at Caffè Michelangiolo. In 1848 he fought with Tuscan volunteers at the Battle of Curtatone and Montanara. In 1856 he traveled with Signorini to Bologna, Modena, Mantua and Venice. He participated in the National Exhibition of 1861 with the painting The meeting of Dante and Beatriz, winning an award that he rejected, like the rest of his peers. In the 1860s he lived in Paris for a period of seven years, where he was up to date with the artistic avant-gardes of the time. He returned in 1875 and won a gold medal at the Naples National Exposition. He abandoned painting in 1878, suffering from a complete paralysis.
Cristiano Banti (1824-1904)
From a wealthy family, he studied at the Siena Academy of Fine Arts. He settled in Florence in 1850, where he joined the Michelangiolo circle. Between 1860 and 1861 he spent several stays painting from life in Liguria and Tuscany. He also welcomed his friends on his farms in Montesorli and Montemurlo, near Florence. In 1861 he traveled to Paris with Cabianca and Signorini, and throughout the 1870s he traveled several times to Paris and London. In 1884 he was appointed professor at the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence. He collected numerous works from his companions, which his granddaughter donated in 1955 to the Palazzo Pitti.
Giovanni Boldini (1842-1931)
Initially trained with his father, also a painter, and from 1862 he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence. In 1864 he entered the environment of the Michelangiolo, where he was protected from Banti. Attached to the macchia, he devoted himself, however, more to the portrait than to the landscape. In 1867 he visited the Universal Exposition in Paris, where he became friends with Edgar Degas. In 1871 he settled in the Parisian neighborhood of Montmartre, where he became a portraitist of high society and signed a contract with the dealer Adolphe Goupil. From 1876 he moved away permanently from macchia and cultivated a style close to French impressionism. In 1889 he visited Madridtogether with Degas. Between 1895 and 1912 he participated several times in the Venice Biennale.
Odoardo Borrani (1833-1905)
Pisan by birth, he lived from a young age in Florence, where he was an apprentice to the restorer Gaetano Bianchi, drawing copies of the frescoes by Giotto, Uccello and Ghirlandaio in the churches of Santa Maria Novella and Santa Croce. In 1851 he enrolled in the Academy of Fine Arts and, since 1855, frequented the Michelangiolo. In 1856 he won the gold medal of the triennial Academy competition. In 1859 he enlisted in the Tuscan artillery. In 1861 he spent a stay at San Marcello Pistoiese, where he painted from life, just as he would do in Piagentina and Castiglioncello. In 1876 he created a private painting academy. He died in poverty.
Vincenzo Cabianca (1827-1902)
Of Veronese origin, he studied at the Venice Academy of Fine Arts. In 1848 he was imprisoned for fighting against the Austrians. Shortly after, he settled in Florence and was added to the macchiaiola gathering. Painter of local scenes by definition, since 1858 he began to paint from nature with the group in the Tuscan countryside. In 1861 he participated in the National Exhibition with Tuscan Storytellers of the 14th century. That same year he traveled to Paris with Banti and Signorini. In 1863 he settled in Parma and, in 1870, in Rome. He participated in several National Exhibitions until the year of his death.
Adriano Cecioni (1836-1886)
He studied from 1859 at the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence. That same year he joined the Tuscan artillery, where he became friends with Signorini. In 1863 he obtained a scholarship to study in Naples; at that time he devoted himself more to sculpture. With Giuseppe De Nittis, Federico Rossano and Marco De Gregorio he founded the so-called Resin School. In 1870 he traveled to Paris with De Nittis, but he did not like the French art of the moment, except for Courbet. Back in Florence in 1873, he took over the management of the Il Giornale Artistico newspaper with Signorini. Gifted for art theory and criticism, he was one of the thinkers of the movement, about whom he reflected in his written work. Between 1874 and 1879 he exhibited at the Promotrice in Florence. In 1884 he got a teaching position that allowed him to recover from a few years of economic hardship.
Nino Costa (1826-1903)
Born in Rome, he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in that city. Persecuted by the papal police for his Garibaldian affiliation, he settled in Ariccia. In 1859 he settled in Florence, where he had a powerful influence on the macchiaioli, especially Fattori. In 1861 he participated in the National Exhibition and, shortly after, traveled to Paris and London; before returning to his country, he settled for a time in the artists’ colony of Marlotte, near Fontainebleau. In 1863, back in Florence, he spent several stays painting in Bocca d’Arno. The following year he fought again with Garibaldi. In 1870 he entered Rome with the Italian troops and was appointed councilor and head of theCapitoline Museums. In the 1880s he spent long stays at Marina di Pisa.
Giovanni Fattori (1825-1908)
He studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence. He was one of the first to participate in the Michelangiolo gathering. He started in macchia in 1859 by studying French soldiers at Le Cascine, a park in Florence. Since then, historical themes have been his favorites, especially those related to the Risorgimento campaigns, in addition to landscapes and portraits. In 1859 he won the Ricasoli contest with The Italian Camp after the Battle of Magenta. In the following years he spent long periods at Castiglioncello. In 1869 he was appointed professor at the Florentine Academy. In 1875 he traveled to Paris, where he was particularly impressed by Corot’s work.. From 1880 his work continued faithful to naturalism, although with a component of greater objectivity. In 1887 he participated in the National Exhibition of Venice.
Silvestro Lega (1826-1895)
He studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence, while giving private lessons with Luigi Mussini. In 1848 he participated in the battle of Curtatone and Montanara. In the 1850s he frequented the Michelangiolo. In 1860 he painted various military scenes that reflected his interest in light and chiaroscuro. In 1861 he began to visit the town of Piagentina, where his girlfriend Virginia Batelli was from and, with his friends, spent long periods painting outdoors. In 1870 he won the silver medal at the Parma National Exposition. After Virginia’s death, he settled in Modigliana, his native town, and suffered a depression, which, along with an eye disease, caused him to practically stop painting. In 1876 he opened an art gallery in Florence with Borrani, which soon failed. I don’t know
Diego Martelli (1839-1896)
Martelli was the theorist of the group, as well as its patron largely. He began to frequent the Caffè Michelangiolo in 1856, where he subscribed to the precepts of macchia as an art critic. In 1859 he enlisted in the Tuscan artillery. From a wealthy family, in 1861 he inherited a farm in Castiglioncello, where he invited his friends to spend several stays painting in the open air. In 1863 he traveled to London and Paris. The following year he settled definitively in Castiglioncello, but the administration of his estate based on Proudhonian methods brought him to ruin after a few years. In 1866 he participated in Garibaldi’s campaign, which he also supported financially. In 1867 he founded the Gazzettino delle Arti del Disegno with Signorini. In the 1870s he worked as a journalist for Il Corriere Italiano and L’Italia Nuova. In 1878 he settled for a year in Paris, where he became friends with Degas and Pissarro.
Antonio Puccinelli (1822-1897)
Son of a tailor, he got a scholarship to study at the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence, where he was a student of Giuseppe Bezzuoli. He was one of the first to participate in the Caffè Michelangiolo gathering, from 1848, the year in which he also enlisted in the Tuscan expeditionary corps. Later he lived a scholarship for four years in Rome. In 1852 he started painting macchia with El paseo del Muro Torto. Soon after, he set up a workshop in Florence and became a professor at the Academy. In 1859 he won a prize in the Ricasoli contest with the portrait of Vincenzo Gioberti. He also participated in the National Exhibition of Florence in 1861, whose success earned him the appointment of professor at the Academy of Bologna.
Raffaello Sernesi (1838-1866)
In 1856 he began his studies at the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence and, soon after, he joined the gathering of Via Larga. In 1859 he enlisted in the Tuscan Expeditionary Army. The following years he devoted himself to painting in natural with the macchiaiola technique, although his drawings denote the influence of four-century artists such as Masaccio, Lippi and Botticelli. In 1861 he participated in the Promotrice in Florence with fig thieves, which was considered immoral. That summer he lived in San Marcello Pistoiese and Piagentina, painting outdoors. In 1864 he also spent a season at Castiglioncello. In 1866 he participated in the Garibaldian conquest of Veneto, where he was wounded and captured by the Austrians, and died shortly after in Bolzano.
Telemaco Signorini (1835-1901)
He trained with his father, a chamber painter of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, as well as at the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence. In 1855 he joined the gathering of the Manchista group and exhibited at the Promotrice in Florence. In 1856 he traveled with D’Ancona to Venice, where he met Abbati. In 1858, on a trip to La Spezia, he made his first macchiaioli studies. In 1859 he enlisted in the Tuscan artillery. The following year he traveled again to La Spezia with Banti and Cabianca. In 1861 he participated in the Promotrice with The Venice Ghetto and traveled to Paris with Banti and Cabianca. On his return he joined the Piagentina group and also began as a writer, being the group’s theorists with Martelli and Cecioni. In 1867 he founded with Martelli theGazzettino delle Arti del Disegno and, shortly after, with Cecioni, Il Giornale Artistico. In 1871 he published 99 artistic discussions and started Caricaturists and caricaturists of the Café Michelangiolo, which he published in 1893. In 1873 he was commissioned by the dealer Goupil to paint various pictures of landscapes of the Marne and the Seine. In 1892 he was appointed professor at the Florentine Academy.
Seraphim of Tivoli (1826-1892)
He trained with the Hungarian painter Carlo Marko. In 1848 he fought in the Battle of Curtatone and Montanara and, in 1849, in defense of the Roman Republic, where he met Nino Costa. He was one of the first parishioners of the Michelangiolo. In 1855 he visited the Universal Exposition in Paris with Saverio Altamura, from where he brought news from the Barbizon school, which powerfully influenced the group. He was the first to start in the Manche technique, which is why he received the nickname papa della macchia. However, since 1862 he began to distance himself from this style. Between 1873 and 1890 he lived in Paris, where he became acquainted with other Florentines living in the French capital, such as D’Ancona and Boldini. He died destitute.
Federico Zandomeneghi (1841-1917)
He studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Venice. In 1860 he participated in the Garibaldian expedition of the Two Sicilies and, shortly after, was imprisoned by the Austrians in Venice. He managed to elope and settled in Florence, where he came into contact with the Michelangiolo. He spent several seasons at Castiglioncello. In 1866 he returned to Venice, once the Italian kingdom was incorporated. In 1874 he settled in Paris, where he entered the Impressionist scene, making friends with Degas, Pissarro and Sisley, and where he was praised by art critic Joris-Karl Huysmans. In 1914 the Venice Biennale dedicated a retrospective exhibition to him. Although longing for his country, he lived until his death in the French capital.